Humankind
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{{Taxobox | color = pink|name = Human|image = human-gender-neutral.png|fossil_range = Pleistocene - Recent]ia|phylum = Chordate|classis = Mammalia]s|familia = Hominidae|species = H. sapiens|subspecies = H. s. sapiens|trinomial = Homo sapiens sapiens|trinomial_authority = [Carolus Linnaeus, 1758-->Humans, or human beings, are bipedalism primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: "wise man" or "knowing man") in the family Hominidae (the great apes). Compared to other living organisms on Earth, humans have a encephalization human brain capable of abstract reasoning, language, and introspection. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other species. DNA evidence indicates that modern humans originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago, The Smithsonian Institution, Human Origins Program and they now inhabit every continent, world population of over 6.6 billion as of 2007.{{cite web] by nature; however, humans are particularly adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and organization. Humans create complex social structures composed of cooperation and competition groups, ranging in scale from small family and partnerships to species-wide political, scientific and economic unions. Social interactions between humans have also established an extremely wide variety of traditions, rituals, ethics, values, norm (sociology), and laws which form the basis of human society. Humans also have a marked appreciation for beauty and aesthetics which, combined with the human desire for self-expression, has led to culture innovations such as art, literature and music.
Humans are also noted for their desire to understanding and influence the world around them, seeking to explain and manipulate natural phenomenon through science, philosophy, mythology and religion. This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills; humans are the only known species to build fires, cooking their food, clothing themselves, and use numerous other technology.
History Evolution
The scientific study of human evolution encompasses the development of the genus Homo (genus), but usually involves studying other hominidae and homininae as well, such as Australopithecus. "Modern humans" are defined as the Homo sapiens species, of which the only extant subspecies is Homo sapiens sapiens; Homo sapiens idaltu (roughly translated as "elder wise man"), the other known subspecies, is extinct. Human evolution: the fossil evidence in 3D, by Philip L. Walker and Edward H. Hagen, Dept of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, retrieved April 5, 2005. Anatomically modern humans appear in the fossil record in Africa about 130,000 years ago. Human Ancestors Hall: Homo Sapiens - URL retrieved October 13, 2006
The closest living relatives of Homo sapiens are two distinct species of the genus Pan: the Bonobo (Pan paniscus) and the Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). These species share the same common ancestor. The main difference between them is the social organization: matriarchal for the Bonobo and patriarchal for the Common Chimpanzee. Full genome sequencing resulted in the conclusion that "after 6.5 million years of separate evolution, the differences between bonobo/chimpanzee and human are just 10 times greater than those between two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice". In fact, 98.4% of the DNA sequence is identical between the two Pan species and human.Frans de Waal, Bonobo. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. ISBN 0-520-20535-9 It has been estimated that the human lineage (evolution) diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from gorillas about eight million years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in Chad in 2001, classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, is approximately seven million years old, which may indicate an earlier divergence.
There are two prominent scientific theories of the origins of contemporary humans. They concern the relationship between modern humans and other hominids. The recent single-origin hypothesis, or "out-of-Africa", hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa and later human migration outwards to replace hominids in other parts of the world. The multiregional hypothesis, on the other hand, proposes that modern humans evolved, at least in part, from independent hominid populations.Eswaran, Vinayak, Harpending, Henry & Rogers, Alan R. Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans, Journal of Human Evolution, In Press, Corrected Proof, retrieved May 6, 2005.
Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah proposed that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene, the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs — no more than 10,000 and possibly as few as 1,000 — resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one of those is the Toba catastrophe theory.
Human evolution is characterized by a number of important morphological, developmental, physiological and behavioral changes which have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of Homo and Pan. The primary change, both in terms of chronology and in terms of it being the trait that defines the human subtribe the Hominina, was the evolution of a bipedal locomotor adaptation from an arboreal locomotor adaptation. Following this was the evolution of a larger Cranial capacity and brain itself, which is typically 1,400 cm³ in modern humans; over twice that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. Other significant morphological changes included a reduction of the canine tooth and the descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible. With respect to development, the pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes (heterochrony), allowing for an extended period of social learning and language acquisition in juvenile humans. Physical anthropology argue that a reorganization of the structure of the brain is more important than cranial expansion itself. One important physiological change in humans was the evolution of hidden estrus or concealed ovulation in females, which may have coincided with the evolution of important behavioral changes, such as pair bonding. Another significant behavioral change includes the development of material culture, or the (over time) increasingly wide variety of human-made objects which are used to manipulate humans' physical and social environments. How all these changes are related and what their role is in the evolution of complex social organization and culture are matters of ongoing debate.Boyd, Robert & Silk, Joan B. (2003). How Humans Evolved. New York: Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97854-0.Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1963). Anthropology and the natural sciences-The problem of human evolution, Current Anthropology '4 (2): 138-148.
Rise of civilization led to the foundation of stable human settlements.
The most widely accepted view among current anthropology is that Homo sapiens originated in the African savanna around 200,000 BP (Before Present), descending from Homo erectus, had colonized Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 BP, and finally colonized the Americas approximately 10,000 years ago.Templeton, Alan (2002). "Out of Africa again and again" Nature 416: 45 - 51. They displaced Homo neanderthalensis and other species descended from Homo erectus (which had colonized Eurasia as early as 2 million years ago) through more successful reproduction and competition for resources.
Up until only around 10,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers (with some communities persisting until this day). They generally lived in small, nomadic groups. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals, and the use of metalworking. Agriculture also encouraged trade and cooperation, leading to complex societies. Villages developed into thriving civilizations in regions such as the Middle East's Fertile Crescent.
Around 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization. Military forces were formed for protection, and government bureaucracy for administration. States cooperated and competed for resources, in some cases waging wars. Around 2,000 – 3,000 years ago, some states, such as Persian Empire, China, and Roman Empire, developed through conquest into the first expansive empires. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in the Middle East, and Hinduism, a religious tradition that originated in South Asia, also rose to prominence at this time.
The late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In China, an advanced and urbanized economy promoted innovations such as printing and the compass, while the Islamic Golden Age saw major scientific advancements in Islam empires. In Europe, the rediscovery of classical antiquity learning and inventions such as the printing press led to the Renaissance in the 14th century. Over the next 500 years, exploration and imperialism conquest brought much of the Americas, Asia, and Africa under European control, leading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century and the Industrial Revolution in the 18th – 19th centuries promoted major innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity; and government, such as representative democracy and Communism.
As a result of such changes, modern humans live in a world that has become increasingly globalization and interconnected. Although this has encouraged the growth of science, art, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes, the development and use of weapons of mass destruction, and increased environmental destruction and pollution.
Habitat and population Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water resources and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources, such as fertile land for growing crops and grazing livestock, or seasonally by hunting populations of prey. However, humans have a great capacity for altering their habitat (ecology) by various methods, such as through irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, and manufacturing goods. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.
Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to all climates. Within the last few decades, humans have explored Antarctica, the deep ocean, and space exploration, although long-term habitation of these environments is not yet possible. With a population of over six billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The vast majority of the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (13%) and Europe (12%), with 0.5% in Oceania. (See list of countries by population and list of countries by population density.)
Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the exploration of the Moon. As of 2007, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in outer space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000.
From AD 1800 to 2000, the human population increased from one billion to six billion. In 2004, around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in urban areas, and this percentage is expected to rise throughout the 21st century. Problems for humans living in city include various forms of pollution and crime, Urban, Suburban, and Rural Victimization, 1993-98 U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,. Accessed 29 Oct 2006 especially in inner city and suburban slums. Benefits of urban living include increased literacy, access to the global canon of human knowledge and decreased susceptibility to rural famines.
Humans have had a dramatic effect on the natural environment. It has been hypothesized that in the past, human predation has contributed to the extinction of a number of species; as humans are not generally preyed on themselves, humans have been described as the ultimate apex predator.Scientific American (1998). Evolution and General Intelligence: Three hypotheses on the evolution of general intelligence. Currently, through land development and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global climate change. This is believed to be a major contributor to the ongoing Holocene extinction event, a extinction event which, if it continues at its current rate, is predicted to wipe out half of all species over the next century.American Association for the Advancement of Science. Foreword. AAAS Atlas of Population & Environment.E. O. Wilson (2002). in The Future of Life.
Biology Physiology and genetics .Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet (nutrition) and exercise. The average human height of an adult human is about 5 to 6 foot (length) (1.5 to 1.8 m) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place."Pygmy." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com Accessed 30 Oct. 2006. http://www.answers.com/topic/pygmy Humans are capable of fully bipedal terrestrial locomotion in animals, thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs.
Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair follicles on his or her body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see. Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Way by Nicholas Wade, New York Times, August 19 2003, retrieved March 17, 2006.
woman, circa 1907.
The hue of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin hues can range from very dark brown to very pale pink, while human hair ranges from blond to brown hair to red hair to, most commonly, black hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a protection against ultraviolet solar radiation, as melanin is an effective sun-block.Jablonski, N.G. & Chaplin, G. (2000). The evolution of human skin coloration (pdf), 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57-106. The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (sun tanning) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.Harding, Rosalind M., Eugene Healy, Amanda J. Ray, Nichola S. Ellis, Niamh Flanagan, Carol Todd, Craig Dixon, Antti Sajantila, Ian J. Jackson, Mark A. Birch-Machin, and Jonathan L. Rees (2000). Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R. American Journal of Human Genetics 66: 1351 – 1361.Robin, Ashley (1991). Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The average sleep requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies; this sleep deprivation can lead to negative effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.
Humans are an eukaryote species. Each ploidy cell (biology) has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex-determination system. By present estimates, humans have approximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. The X chromosome is larger and carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that recessive gene diseases associated with X-linked genes, such as hemophilia, affect men more often than women.
at 5 weeks.
Life cycle The human biological life cycle is similar to that of other placental mammals. New humans develop vivipary from fertilization. An ovum is usually fertilized inside the female by spermatozoon from the male through sexual intercourse, though the recent technology of in vitro fertilization is occasionally used. The fertilized egg, called a zygote, divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo, which over a period of thirty-eight weeks (9 months) of gestation becomes a human fetus. After this span of time, the fully-grown fetus is expelled from the female's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend personhood to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.
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Compared with that of other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in injury, or even death, to the child and/or mother. This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively narrow pelvis (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection). The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain relatively hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times more common than in developed countries.
In developed countries, infants are typically 3 – 4 kg (6 – 9 pounds) in weight and 50 – 60 cm (20 – 24 inches) in height at birth. However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions. Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 12 to 15 years of age. Human girls continue to grow physically until around the age of 18, and human boys until around age 21. The human life span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages, however — particularly the later ones — are not fixed.
There are striking differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40 years (highest in Monaco at 45.1 years), while in the third world, the median age is 15 – 20 years (lowest in Uganda at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong, China is 84.8 years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in Swaziland, primarily because of AIDS, it is 31.3 years for both sexes. "Human Development Report 2006," United Nations Development Programme, pp. 363-366, November 9 2006 While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ The World Factbook, U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, retrieved April 2, 2005.
The number of centenarians (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002. U.N. Statistics on Population Ageing, United Nations press release, February 28, 2002, retrieved April 2, 2005 At least one person, Jeanne Calment, is known to have reached the age of 122 years; higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.
The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after death are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of death causes unease or fear for most humans. Burial ceremonies are characteristic of human societies, often inspired by beliefs in an afterlife or immortality.
Diet Early Homo sapiens employed a "hunter-gatherer" method as their primary means of food collection, involving combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms) with wild game which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It is believed that humans have used fire to prepare and cooking food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from Homo erectus.
Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming both plant and animal products. The view of humans as omnivores is supported by the evidence that both a pure animal and a pure vegetable diet can lead to deficiency diseases in humans. A pure animal diet can, for instance, lead to scurvy, while a pure plant diet can lead to deficiency of a number of nutrients, including Vitamin B12. Supplementation, particularly for vitamin B12, is highly recommended for people living on a pure plant diet. Some humans have chosen to abstain from eating some or all meat for religious, ethical, ecological, or health reasons.
The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. Lack of food remains a serious problem, with about 300,000 people starving to death every year. Death and DALY estimates for 2002 by cause for WHO Member States World Health Organisation. Accessed 29 Oct 2006 Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased to almost epidemic proportions, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed country, and a few developing countries. The United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) state that 32% of American adults over the age of 20 are obese, while 66.5% are obese or overweight. Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, with many attributing excessive weight gain to a combination of overeating and insufficient exercise.
At least ten thousand years ago, History of agriculture, Earliest agriculture in the Americas Earliest cultivation of barley Earliest cultivation of figs - URLs retrieved February 19, 2007 which has substantially altered the kind of food people eat. This has led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture.
Psychology 's David (Michelangelo) - sketch by artist Priyan Weerappuli.
The human brain is the center of the central nervous system in humans, as well as the primary control center for the peripheral nervous system. The brain controls "lower", or involuntary, autonomic nervous system activities such as the respiration (physiology), and digestion. The brain also controls "higher" order, conscious activities, such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction. 3-D Brain Anatomy, The Secret Life of the Brain, Public Broadcasting Service, retrieved April 3 2005. These mental function constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology.
The human brain is generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, and more "intelligence (trait)" in general, than that of any other species. While other animals are capable of creating structures and using simple tools — mostly as a result of instinct and learning through mimicry — human technology is vastly more complex, constantly evolving and improving with time. Even the most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by any other animal.Carl Sagan (1978). The Dragons of Eden. A Ballantine Book. ISBN 0-345-34629-7
Modern Anthropology has tended to bear out Charles Darwin proposition that "the difference in mind betweenman and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind".Jonathan Benthall Animal liberation and rights Anthropology Today Volume 23 Issue 2 Page 1 - April 2007
Consciousness and thought The human ability to think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Humans are one of only six species to pass the mirror test — which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself — along with chimpanzees, orangutans, dolphins, and possibly dove. In October 2006, three elephants at the Bronx Zoo also passed this test. Humans under the age of 2 typically fail this test. Consciousness and the Symbolic Universe, by Dr. Jack Palmer, retrieved March 17, 2006. However, this may be a matter of degree rather than a sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks. Researchers home in on how brain handles abstract thought - retrieved July 29, 2006
The brain perception the external world through the senses, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjectivity views of existence and the passage of time.
Humans are variously said to possess consciousness, self-awareness, and a mind, which correspond roughly to the mental processes of thought. These are said to possess qualities such as self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perception the relationship between Personal identity (philosophy) and one's natural environment. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. The philosopher of cognitive science Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called the "mind", but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of "software" running in parallel.Dennett, Daniel (1991). Consciousness Explained. Little Brown & Co, 1991, ISBN 0-316-18065-3.
Humans study the more physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system, in the field of neurology, the more behavioral in the field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely-defined area between in the field of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenology or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.
The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental function underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well-researched areas as well. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism (psychology), whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development.
Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience Ned Block: On a Confusion about a Function of Consciousness" in: The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1995. Phenomenal consciousness is the state of being conscious, such as when we say "I am conscious." Access consciousness is being conscious of something in relation to abstract concepts, such as when one says "I am conscious of these words." Various forms of access consciousness include awareness, self-awareness, conscience, Stream of consciousness (psychology), Phenomenology, and intentionality. The concept of phenomenal consciousness, in modern history, according to some, is closely related to the concept of qualia.
Social psychology links sociology with psychology in their shared study of the nature and causes of human social interaction, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. The behavior and mental processes, both human and non-human, can be described through animal cognition, ethology, evolutionary psychology, and comparative psychology as well. Human ecology is an List of academic disciplines that investigates how humans and human society interact with both their natural environment and the human social environment.
Motivation and emotion 's Tio Paquete (1820).
Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate Action (philosophy) of human beings. Motivation is based on emotion — specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because their brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses.
Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on financial incentives, moral incentives, or coercive incentives. Religions generally posit Deity or demonic influences.
Happiness, or being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophy topic. Some people might define it as the best condition which a human can have — a condition of mental and physical health. Others may define it as Freedom (philosophy) from want and distress; consciousness of the goodness and value theory order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society, inner peace, and so forth.
Human emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked.
Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, like love, admiration, or happiness, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sadness. There is often a distinction seen between refined emotions, which are socially learned, and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate.
Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worthy of note, particularly in those cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories, to provide an example, emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some Sufi teachers (in particular, the poet and astronomer Omar Khayyám) felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy (emotion).
In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a complex neural trait of many domesticated and a few non-domesticated mammals. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. Still, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social civil disorder and crime.
Love and sexuality Human sexuality, besides ensuring biological reproduction, has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds and hierarchies among individuals; may be directed to spiritual transcendence (according to some traditions); and in a hedonism sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. lust, or libido, is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions such as love, ecstasy (emotion) and jealousy.
As with other human self-descriptions, humans propose that it is high intelligence and complex societies of humans that have produced the most complex sexual behaviors of any animal, including a great many behaviors that are not directly connected with reproduction.
Human sexual choices are usually made in reference to cultural norm (sociology), which vary widely. Restrictions are sometimes determined by religious beliefs or social customs.
Many Sexology believe that the majority of Homo sapiens have the inherent capacity to be attracted to both males and females (a kind of universal potential bisexuality). In a variation of this, pioneering researcher Sigmund Freud believed that humans are born Psychosexual development, which means that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. According to Freud, humans then pass through five stages of psychosexual development (and can fixate on any stage because of various traumas during the process). For Alfred Kinsey, another influential sex researcher, people can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation (with only small minorities fully heterosexual or homosexual). Recent studies of neurology and genetics suggest people may be born with one sexual orientation or another, so there is not currently a clear consensus among sex researchers. Buss, David M. (2004) "The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating". Revised Edition. New York: Basic Books" Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (2000). A Natural History of Rape. Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Culture Culture is defined here as a set of distinctive material, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual features of a social group, including art, literature, lifestyles, value systems, traditions, rituals, and beliefs. The link between human biology and human behavior and culture is often very close, making it difficult to clearly divide topics into one area or the other; as such, the placement of some subjects may be based primarily on convention.
Culture consists of values, social norms, and artifact (archaeology). A culture's value (personal and cultural) define what it holds to be important or ethics. Closely linked are norm (sociology), expectations of how people ought to behave, bound by tradition. Artifacts, or "archaeological culture", are objects derived from the culture's values, norms, and understanding of the world.
The mainstream anthropological view of ‘culture’ implies that most people experience a strong resistance when reminded that there is an animal as well as a spiritual aspect to human nature.
Language The capacity humans have to transfer concepts, ideas and notions through speech and writing is unrivaled in known species. The faculty of Speech communication is a defining feature of humanity, possibly predating phylogenetic separation of the modern population (see origin of language). Language is central to the communication between humans, as well as being central to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups.
The invention of writing systems around 4th millennium BC allowed the preservation of language on material objects, and was a major step in cultural evolution. Language is closely tied to ritual and religion (cf. mantra, sacred text).
The science of linguistics describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are approximately 6,000 different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are considered extinct language.
Art, music and literature of a woman writing sheet music by Lorenzo Lippi.Artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind, from early Prehistory art to contemporary art. Art is one of the most unusual aspects of human behavior and a key distinguishing feature of humans from other species.
As a form of culture expression by humans, art may be defined by the pursuit of Multiculturalism and the usage of narratives of liberation and exploration (i.e. art history, art criticism, and art theory) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them.
In the modern use of the word, art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works which, from concept to creation, adhere to the "creative impulse" of human beings. Art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation.
Music is a natural Intuition (knowledge) phenomenon based on the three distinct and interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Listening to music is perhaps the most common and universal form of entertainment for humans, while learning and understanding it are popular disciplines. There are a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics.
Literature, the body of written — and possibly oral — works, especially creative ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and non-fiction. Literature includes such genres as epic poetry, legend, mythology, ballad, and folklore.
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Spirituality and religion Spirituality, belief or involvement in matters of the soul or spirit, is one of the many different approaches humans take in trying to answer fundamental questions about humankind's place in the universe, the meaning of life, and the ideal way to live one's life. Though these topics have also been addressed by philosophy, and to some extent by science, spirituality is unique in that it focuses on mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma and God.
A more organized, but related, concept is religion — sometimes used interchangeably with "faith" — which is commonly defined as a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divinity, and the moral codes, practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. In the course of its development of religion, religion ha